Theories of subjectivity Free Essay Example, 2250 words

Butler’s take on this matter is both compatible and a little critical. To start with, Butler shares Foucault’s insistence that subjectivity, the experience of the â€Å"interior† self, is but an effect. We have Sonia Kruks (2001) insight to underscore the point: †¦ for Butler, as for Foucault, there are only two possibilities: the subject is conceived either as fully constituting or as constituted tout court. And like Foucault – at least in his explicit pronouncements on this issue – Butler conceives the subject as entirely constituted. (p. 72) When Foucault (1979) concluded that â€Å"the soul is the effect and instrument of a political anatomy; the soul is the prison of the body, † (p. 30) Butler did not object. She extensively analyzed this statement along with centuries-old arguments of Aristotle, particularly highlighting that the soul as described by Foucault, â€Å"is an instrument of power, forms and frames the body, stamps it, and in stamping it, brings it into being. † (p. 34) On the other hand, Butler faulted Foucault for elaborating an overly passive conception of the body as the surface of disciplinary action. She particularly argued that gender is produced through a series of acts that are always internally discontinuous, rather than knit closely together in the lived intentionality of a body-subject. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of subjectivity or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now (Kruks p. 72) However, Butler followed Foucault, in studying the subject as a contingent identity category where is continually being produced instead of a pre-defined or pre-existing object that is finally represented. On Feminism Foucault’s position contributed to most of Butler’s arguments on the issue. As with the other sectors in the issue of sexuality, feminism is addressed by Foucault using his desexualization approach. The objective of this strategy, according to Simons, is to detach people from their sexually defined identities, such as â€Å"hysterical† women. We quote: The validity of Faucault’s position for feminism rests on an argument that women in particular are constrained by oppressive sexual subjectivities. Effective desexualization requires an analysis of how sex and subjectifying power are linked. The strategy of desexualization for Faucault is thus not only a question of feminism, but of a wider resistance to our subjection primarily as sexual subjects. (p. 107) Here, we draw some parallel to Butler’s arguments, who for her part, refused to join most feminists adhering to the humanist theory calling for extra-political grounds of exposing the plight of women and advocating feminism.

The Renaissance And Italian Renaissance - 961 Words

The Renaissance (rebirth), was a time in which all art became more personalized and represented more than we see. There were two major stages in the Western European/ Italian Renaissance: Early Renaissance and High Renaissance. It gave patrons a new outlook on art and the world. Styles such as Mannerism, Fresco, and Parietal help advance art in western Europe. Most of the Renaissance works were religious,or had had something to do with the ancient times (ancient greece and roman culture). Not only was is a re-birth of art, it was a re-birth of scientific thinking and studying architecture. Although there are two major sections to the Renaissance, there are very few differences between the two periods of time in the 15th and 16th†¦show more content†¦Mannerism was huge in Italy. One of the greatest pieces created in this style was Leonardo’s ‘Mona Lisa’. Leonardo uses mysterious elements for the background, it recalls one of his other lesser known painting s named ‘Madonna of the Rocks’. The reason this piece is so fascinating is because Leonardo finished very few of his works. He did, however have a notebook of â€Å"Renaissance Drawings†. Since Leonardo was an architect as well as an artist, this led him to create some of the greatest technology man has ever known. They also resembled his ideas of what the Renaissance meant to him and the ideas he gained from this re-birth. Some of Leonardo’s tactics are still used today. Take cutaways for example. This style of imagery was used long before the age of X-Rays. Leonardo was not the only one with Renaissance Drawings. It was common for a lot of Renaissance artists to have notebooks full of drawings. Artists usually used silverpoint stylus when drawing in their notebook. For other works, artists used different materials (ink pen, chalk, charcoal, brush, graphite/lead). This has lead me to believe that artists used different materials to create different moods , and to give each piece a different meaning. Another big name in the Renaissance was Raphael (Raffaello Santi). It is said that Raphael mostly likely learned his tactics and roots of Renaissance art from his father, Giovanni Santi.Show MoreRelatedThe Italian Renaissance And The Renaissance1424 Words   |  6 PagesThe Italian Renaissance was an explosion of art, writing, and thought, that roughly lasted between 1300 to 1600. In this time each citizen, countrymen, or villager had and performed different jobs and careers. Humanism the study of Greek and Roman writings, art, and architecture, initially jump started the Renaissance, and the need for art. Artists now were inspired to use life like art and linear perspective, so art seemed and was more realistic. The start of the Italian Renaissance was theRead MoreRenaissance And The Italian Renaissance1396 Words   |  6 PagesThe Italian Renaissance had two distinct periods during its lifetime. The first being the â€Å"Early R enaissance†, which took place between the late 13th and the early 14th centuries. The second period was known as the â€Å"High Renaissance†, which took place during the 15th and 16th centuries. These two periods had very distinct foundations and styles behind the art and architecture of their respective periods. The Early Renaissance revived many old themes which later became the foundations for the HighRead MoreItalian Renaissance And The Renaissance910 Words   |  4 PagesIn the late 14th century to the 16th century, the Italian Renaissance was taking place and moving from the Middle Ages at a time when the Catholic Church was indomitable to a period called The Renaissance. After this â€Å"rebirth† in Italy began, it started spreading to other countries to then produce a French Renaissance, an English Renaissance, and so on. Italy served a sort of birth place for the Renaissance in European culture. During this time period, more and more people were placing humans asRead MoreThe Italian Renaissance And The Renaissance1158 Words   |  5 PagesThe Renaissance period is known for the revival of the classical art and intellect born in ancient Greece and Rome. The Renaissance is also a time that is marked by growth, exploration, and rebirth. The Italian Renaissance started in Florence and progressively made its way into Venice and then into the great city of Rome. During the Renaissance, Rome was home to some of the renowned works of art and the finest architectural masterpieces in the world - too many that still holds true today. Along withRead MoreThe Italian Renaissance1558 Words   |  7 Pages Julianna Plunkett Ms. McGuire British Literature 11 06/10/15 The Italian Renaissance began in the mid-fourteenth century, and was marked by a turn from medieval life and values dominated by the Church toward the philosophical principles of humanism. The Italian people, especially the educated middle class, became interested in individual achievements and emphasized life in this world, as opposed to preparation for life in the next world, which was stressedRead MoreThe Italian Renaissance870 Words   |  4 Pagescentury, Italy was divided into many self-governing city sates. Florence, an independent republic and third largest city in Europe at the time, was the motherland of the Italian Renaissance. This was an enlightening time of â€Å"rebirth† that began directly after the Middle Ages (History.com Staff). Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance due to its location, prosperity, and cultural amalgamation. WHY IS ITS LOCATION SO SPECIAL - why not somewhere else? Italy consisted of communes, or city-states, ruledRead MoreThe Italian Renaissance1228 Words   |  5 PagesThe Italian Renaissance was a time for great cultural change and achievements, which began in Italy approximately during the 13th century and lasted up until the 16th century. It marked the transition between the Dark Ages and Early Modern Europe. The European Renaissance originated in Central Italy, and centered in the city of Florence.i The distinctive characteristics of northern Italian states such as art, literature, philosophy, and culture produced an atmosphere of learning and artistic expressionRead MoreComparing The Italian And Italian Renaissance1748 Words   |  7 PagesNorthern Renaissance and Italian Renaissance Differences between the Italian and Northern Renaissance The Renaissance was a period of great cultural and technological changes which swept Europe from the end of the 13 century. It was integral in developing Europe into a powerhouse. Although, each part of Europe was subjected to different changes, there were two primary renaissances which were most notable. They were the Italian and the Northern renaissance. Both of these renaissances had a profoundRead MoreChildbirth And The Italian Renaissance1741 Words   |  7 PagesChildbirth and Childbearing in Renaissance Italy for upper status woman, was far different than what childbearing is compared to today’s standards. In renaissance Italy it was said that woman only had one purpose and that purpose was to have many legitimate babies, especially for the nobility and upper status couples. From having these babies, the family could inherit a lot of wealth (King, M. L., 2003). This differs greatly in todays society, as now woman’s primary function is not only to produceRead Mor eThe Rise Of The Italian Renaissance1287 Words   |  6 PagesThe Italian Renaissance, in contrast to the conservative attitude of the Middle Ages, introduced a society dominated by a secular, humanistic spirit. One of the most historically significant events of the Renaissance was the Reformation. Some people argue that the Reformation was a rejection the secular spirit of the Italian Renaissance. Others assert that the Reformation was an embracement of these secular ideas. However as with many questions, this issue cannot be given a definite answer. The events

Max Weber Free Essays

Max Weber on Religion Max Weber, a German social scientist born in 1864, felt religion played an important role in society. Weber attended the University of Berlin where he studied economics and law, along with several other subjects including philosophy, religion and art. He had three tools of sociological inquiry that focused on explaining human actions. We will write a custom essay sample on Max Weber or any similar topic only for you Order Now Weber’s first principle of Verstehen is the German term for â€Å"understanding. † This principle states that we cannot explain the actions of humans because they are not driven by external factors but by internal values held by the individual. The second is Ideal-Typus, which states that we form a purposeful exaggeration of what should be. And lastly, his principle of Values states that when dealing with science, values should not be mixed in. Also facts and values are very different things. In Weber’s first major work on religion, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, he claim’s â€Å"that there is a close connection between religion, the rise of economic capitalism, and the birth of modern civilization in Western Europe† (Pals 160). He observed that the Protestants were leading in business and he concluded that they did everything following the will God in their lives. Therefore, Weber believed that religion does affect ones behavior causing it to affect the economy. In, Sociology of Religion, Weber focuses on three different religious leaders. The first is a magician. For Weber, religion is something that is fixed with special experiences, or â€Å"ecstatic states†, and magicians are those that are put â€Å"beyond the realm of everyday activity and disclose themselves to another realm of reality† (Pals 166). Magicians would be called to cure illnesses or assist in the growth of crops. Weber thinks that they are â€Å"permanently endowed with charisma† which is key in a religious leader. The second religious leader that Weber talks about is a priest. They are usually in charge of religious rituals held in a temple. And lastly, the third of the religious leaders is the prophet. They are the bearers of charisma. Weber’s theory on religion is not one that I completely agree with but it is one that I found interesting. How to cite Max Weber, Essay examples Max Weber Free Essays string(133) " ideal lying behind this is that if the official has any source of income apart from a salary he will not reliably follow the rules\." POL264 Modern Political Theory MAX WEBER: ON BUREAUCRACY John Kilcullen Macquarie University Copyright (c) 1996, R. J. Kilcullen. We will write a custom essay sample on Max Weber or any similar topic only for you Order Now See Marx on Capitalism Reading Guide 8: Max Weber ‘GM’ refers to H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (trans. and ed. ), From Max Weber (New York, 1946) (H/33/. W36). ‘SEO’ refers to Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, tr. Henderson and Parsons (New York, 1947) ((HB/175/. W364). ‘ES’ refers to Max Weber, Economy and Society, ed. G. Roth and C. Wittich (New York, 1968) (HM/57/. W342). Beetham’ refers to David Beetham, Max Weber and the Theory of Modern Politics (London, 1974) (JA/76/. B37). In this lecture I want to look at what Weber says about bureaucracy, in G and M, p. 196 ff, and in SEO, p. 329 ff. First, something about the word. ‘Bureau’ (French, borrowed into German) is a desk, or by extension an office (as in ‘I will be at the office tomorrow’; ‘I work at the Bureau of Statistics’). ‘Bureaucracy’ is rule conducted from a desk or office, i. e. by the preparation and dispatch of written documents – or, these days, their electronic equivalent. In the office are kept records of communications sent and received, the files or archives, consulted in preparing new ones. This kind of rule is of course not found in the ancient classifications of kinds of government: monarchy, aristocracy, democracy – and bureaucracy? In fact it does not belong in such a classification. It is a servant of government, a means by which a monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, or other form of government, rules. Those who invented the word wanted to suggest that the servant was trying to become the master. Weber is of course aware of this tendency; in fact he attacked the pretensions of the Prussian bureaucracy to be an objective and neutral servant of society, above politics, and emphasized that every bureaucracy has interests of its own, and connections with other social strata (especially among the upper classes); see Beetham, chapter 3. But formally and in theory the bureaucracy is merely a means, and this is largely true also in practice: someone must provide policy direction and back the bureaucrat up (if necessary) with force. At the top of a bureaucratic organization, there is necessarily an element which is at least not purely bureaucratic’, SEO, p. 335, to give policy direction. In the middle ages the most effective kings ruled from horseback: they travelled round the country, armed, accompanied by armed men, and enforced their will. They were prepared if necessary to enforce their will on their armed companions by personal combat, though their prestige was such that t his was seldom necessary. The king was accompanied also by ‘clerks’, i. e. lergy, who could read and write, who took along a chest containing records and writing materials; the modern bureaucracy developed from this. In modern countries the ruler does not have to fight in person, or travel round much; he or she rules by sending messages, through a bureau. The messages are usually acted on mainly because of the government’s moral authority or prestige (a ‘status’ phenomenon), but also because they can be backed by force, by a ‘staff’ of police or soldiers. As Weber points out (e. g. SEO, pp. 330-1), armies have been bureaucratized. Napoleon had to watch his battle from horseback, but the modern general receives and sends messages. Napoleon had a ‘staff’, officers who galloped off with written messages, the modern army has a ‘general staff’; the Prussian general staff was in Weber’s time regarded with pride one of the key institutions of the German empire – it was in Weber’s terms a bureaucracy. As he also points out, not only government services but also political parties, churches, educational institutions, and private businesses, and many other institutions have ureaucracies. That is, they all have a professional staff for keeping records and sending communications which will be regarded, at least by other staff of the same institution, as authoritative directions. Bureaucracies are found in ancient Egypt, ancient Rome, in the middle ages (notably the bureaucracy that served the pope). Bureaucracy is a pervasive feature of modern societies, ever growing in import ance, Weber believed. Weber sets out an ‘ideal type’ (see last lecture) for bureaucracy, characterised by an elaborate hierarchical division of labour directed by explicit rules impersonally applied, staffed by full-time, life-time, professionals, who do not in any sense own the ‘means of administration’, or their jobs, or the sources of their funds, and live off a salary, not from income derived directly from the performance of their job. These are all features found in the public service, in the offices of private firms, in universities, and so on. Let me comment on these points, starting with the ‘economic’ features. There have in history been governments whose members made no distinction in resources, income, expenditure, etc. between public and private. Weber calls these ‘patrimonial’ (from the Roman law term for property that can be bought or sold). In Europe in the middle ages, for example, ‘jurisdiction’ was often as much a piece of property as a building or a horse. A kingdom might change hands as part of a marriage settlement. This was not true of jurisdiction and property in the Church, which did distinguish the prelate’s private property from that of his church, and did not allow jurisdiction to be inherited or transferred as property; it forbade ‘simony’ (buying and selling office in the church), and enforced celibacy to keep church office and property from falling into the patrimony of families. Weber also speaks of ‘prebends’ or ‘benefices’ (terms used in the medieval Church), meaning an office to which is attached some income-yielding property, e. g. farm, or tithes, or tax-gathering rights, from which the office holder lives–but this property does not belong to the beneficiary/prebendary and cannot be sold or bequeathed. The modern bureaucrat is even further removed from property: he or she does not have a prebend, but is paid a salary. Bureaucrats are not allowed to charge fees for themselves (if fees are charged they belong to the government, fi rm, etc. ), or to accept gifts. The ideal lying behind this is that if the official has any source of income apart from a salary he will not reliably follow the rules. You read "Max Weber" in category "Papers" Reliable following of the official rules is one of the highest values in a bureaucracy. The modern bureaucrat does not own his job (SEO, p. 332). Some governments have sold offices, to raise money. This was true, for example, of judicial positions in 18th century France, of commissions in the army and navy in most European countries into the 19th century. The vested rights of office holders were an obstacle to reorganization, an impediment to efficiency; so they were bought out, or expropriated with compensation. Bureaucrats do not own the ‘means of administration’ – the computers, the furniture, the files, etc. Weber suggests a parallel with capitalist productive enterprise (GM, pp. 81-2). Similarly, in modern armies the soldier does not own his weapons, whereas in ancient armies he did (GM, pp. 221-2). For example, in ancient Rome when the army was called together the ‘classes’ were expected to come equipped to a certain standard at their own expense – ‘classification’ was a form of taxation. Soldiers were expected to bring money to buy food from the locals (when they did not take what they wanted by force); they got no pay or provisions. In modern educational institutions teachers do not own what they use (in medieval universities originally they did, and in fact each ‘master’ owned a school which was a private business enterprise). ‘The bureaucratization of†¦ the universities is a function of the increasing demand for material means of management†¦ Through the concentration of such means in the hands of the privileged head of the institute, the mass of researchers and docents (lecturers) are separated from their â€Å"means of production† in the same way as capitalist enterprise has separated the workers from theirs’, GM, pp. 23-4. In the modern army, public service, private firm, the equipment is provided by the organization partly because this is more efficient now that it is so elaborate and expensive. The modern bureaucrat is a full-time, life-time professional; this requires a sufficient salary and job security, because otherwise people will not stay in the job full ti me for life. Unless they do, the organization will not be efficient. It takes time and experience to learn the job, not so much because it is difficult to perform the particular task, but because it all has to be coordinated. An elaborate division of labour requires stability of staff. Because of the nature of bureaucratic work, and also perhaps because of the importance of training and coordination in the job, the bureaucracy wants educated recruits. Their education will be attested by some certificate (partly just to prove they have been educated, but also perhaps because a bureaucracy likes to work with clear impersonal criteria). Weber speaks of ‘credentialism’, the preoccupation evident in modern societies with formal educational qualifications. All these things – credentials, fixed salary, tenure, stability of staffing, Weber incorporates into his ideal type. They are all required, he believes, for the efficient functioning of an administrative machine. Another feature is the impersonal application of general rules, both to the outsiders the organization deals with, and to its own staff. The Taxation Commissioner’s staff impersonally, objectively, apply the rules to the taxpayer, and their own duties and rights within the organization are defined by rules applied to them impersonally by their superiors. In Weber’s mind this is the most important feature of bureaucracy. It underlies the features we have been commenting on up to this point: bureaucrats do not own their equipment or their job, and receive a fixed salary etc. , because these things ensure reliable rule-following. In ESO he treats of bureaucracy under the heading of Types of Legitimate Authority. There are three types: rational, traditional and charismatic. Charismatic authority is regarded as legitimate, and works, because followers are personally devoted to the ‘gifted’ leader. Traditional authority is regarded as legitimate because everyone has always obeyed whoever was in the leader’s position, and no one thinks of disputing his authority. Rational authority is the ‘rule of law’: it exists in a community in which there is a moral attitude of respect for the law as such, or because the law has been arrived at in a way that is regarded as legitimate. Rulers are recognised and obeyed if they can show a warrant in the law. Bureaucracy obviously exists within such a framework: even in the bureaucracy of a private firm, subordinates want to be assured that orders are properly authorised. Bureaucracy is the most efficient way of implementing the rule of law: the legal rules are recorded, studied, and applied in a carefully considered and reliable way to individual cases. Why does Weber regard the rule of law as ‘rational’? One possible answer is suggested by his statement that ‘any given legal norm may be established†¦ on grounds of expediency or rational values or both, with a claim to obedience’, SEO, p. 329. ‘Expediency’ is, in Weber’s thinking, one of the two main forms of rationality, and ‘rational values’ is the other. So he is saying that law may be rational in either or both of those ways, and (therefore? ) claim obedience. Insofar as the law is rational, obedience is rational, and the rule of law is rational. In other places he emphasises the rationality of bureaucracy in precisely the first of those two senses. So let me explain the two senses more carefully. He distinguishes the ‘zweckrationell’ from the ‘wertrationell’, the ‘goal-rational’ and the ‘value-rational’ (SEO, p. 115). ‘Zweck’ means end, purpose, goal. Goal-rational behaviour is whatever course of conduct is well-adapted as a means to one’s ends, whatever they may be; i. e. it is economic efficiency from the actor’s point of view – given that these are my goals, and these are the resources available to me, what is the effective way of achieving these goals? The Nazi ‘final solution’ might be said to be rational if it really was an efficient solution to what its proponents saw as a problem, whether they were right to see it as a problem or not, and whether it was moral or immoral. And very often Weber writes as if the intelligent choice of means is all that rationality can be. But from time to time he says that the rationality of actions is not always determined by their effectiveness in furthering goals, but sometimes by some other sort of relation to values that are not goals, and that goals and other values also can be rational or irrational. For example, to tell a lie may be an effective means of furthering one’s goals, but it may violate a moral value, a value that truth-telling serves in some sense other than as a means to achieve a goal; and truthfulness is not a goal, but a ‘value’ of some other sort (we also ‘value’ ultimate goals). So occasionally he distinguishes between ‘goal-rationality’ – effectiveness in serving one’s goals whatever they are, rational or irrational – and ‘value-rationality’, the rationality of goals (and not merely as means to some ulterior goal) and other values, and of actions in their relation (otherwise than as means) to some value. But only occasionally: often he treats rationality as synonymous with efficiency. And it is in this sense, I think, that he means that bureaucracy is rational in the following: ‘Experience tends universally to show that the purely bureaucratic type of administrative organization†¦ is†¦ capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency, and is in this sense formally the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control over human beings. It is superior to any other form in precision, in stability, in the stringency of its discipline, and in its reliability. It thus makes possible a particularly high degree of calculability of results for the heads of organization and for those acting in relation to it. It is finally superior both in intensive efficiency and in the scope of its operations, and is formally capable of application to all kinds of administrative tasks’, ESO, p. 337. Weber is thus not one of those who regard bureaucracy as synonymous with inefficiency: quite the reverse, it is the supremely efficient way of conducting administration. This is why is has been adopted by capitalistic firms, and in every institution. An institution served by a bureaucracy will out-perform its competitors, and prevail in the struggle for survival: bureaucracy has spread and continues to spread because of its survival value for social institutions. ‘When those subject to bureaucratic control seek to escape the influence of the existing bureaucratic apparatus, this is normally possible only by creating an organization of their own which is equally subject to the process of bureaucratization’, GM, p. 38 – because they can’t beat a bureaucracy except with the aid of another one. (This is the theme of the book on Political Parties by Weber’s protege Roberto Michels; his book shows how the Marxist Social Democratic Party, despite its belief in internal democracy, had become thoroughly bureaucratized and undemocratic. Later Trotsky explained Stalinism as a ‘bureaucratic deformation’ of Marxism. ) Just as Adam Smith’s pin makers who divide their labour will make more pins and sell them more cheaply than their ld-fashioned competitors, and will drive them out of the market, so an army with a general staff, a government with a bureaucracy, a pope with a chancery, a firm with an efficient office, will prevail over their competitors. Bureaucracy is in fact the division of labour applied to administration, and bureaucracy occupies the same place in Weber’s account of the development of modern civilization as division of labour in general occupies in Adam Smith’s account. For Weber this species of division of labour is more fundamental than the others because it initiates and orders other divisions of labour. Instructions come to the factory floor from the office. Just as Adam Smith saw division of labour in general as the cause of progress toward modern, generically commercial, society, so Weber sees bureaucracy as one of the most important causes of the development of capitalism specifically. He points to many cooperating causes (see Collins), and in The Spirit of Capitalism puts some emphasis on the moral causes – on the factors that made people strive for ever increasing profit, and to use their profits not for consumption but for further investment. But among the causal factors he often mentions the adoption of rational accounting methods: no amount of will to make a profit, or willingness to invest, would have had the desired result if investment and management had not been guided by systematic accounting, carried on of course increasingly by a bureaucracy. Once some began to be systematic others had to follow suit or go under. Labourers were ‘separated’ from the old-fashioned means of production by the superior effectiveness of production guided by systematic accounting – they could get a better living as employees. Capitalists adopted machinery and other innovations when their bureaucracy analyzing the possibilities of investment found that such innovation would be profitable. In fact a bureaucracy finds its own capitalists. As modern Weberians have pointed out, modern firms are run, not by owners, but by their managers, who often initiate the issuing of shares to raise capital, or seek loans or investments. But although Weber regards bureaucracy as supremely efficient, he regards its inevitable triumph with distaste. Paralleling the distinction between ‘goal-rational’ and ‘value-rational’ (and perhaps the same distinction in other words) is a distinction between ‘formal’ and ‘substantive’ rationality. Society is ‘formally’ rational when things are organized to maximise the attainment of people’s goals, whatever they are. But it may be formally rational without being ‘substantively’ rational, because this organization is inimical to values rationally paramount over the goals actually served. One of these values is personal freedom, to which bureaucracy is inimical. The quality which best guarantees promotion [in a bureaucracy] is a measure of pliancy toward the apparatus,†¦ of â€Å"convenience† for his superior’, ES, p. 1449. Socialism would mean one unified bureaucratic system: at least now there are alternative and competing bureaucracies; see ES, pp. 1402-3, 1453-4, and Beetham, pp. 82-9. So for Weber bureaucracy occupies the place capitalism has for Marx, of the admired enemy, spreading inexorably throughout the world and into every department of life. But Weber foresees no ‘death-knell’. Bureaucracy is inescapable. But Weber does not believe that there is no point in resisting the inevitable. He was himself politically active, in a despairing kind of way – he did not expect to have success, but he went on ‘resolutely’, like a Stoic. Weber as politician takes his stand on certain values although (as a scientist) he cannot rationally justify them, and takes ‘responsibility’ for organising action aimed at realising those values although he knows that action may fail. Weber contrasts the status honour of the bureaucrat with the responsibility of politician; see ES, pp. 1403-4, 1417, 1438. If a bureaucrat’s superior gives him a directive he considers wrong he should object, but if the superior insists ‘it is his duty and even his honour to carry it out as if it corresponded to his innermost conviction’, On the other hand ‘the politician must publicly reject the responsibility for political actions that run counter to his convictions and must sacrifice his office to them’. A genuine political leader will be ready to accept responsibility for morally dubious action, since the different parts of our value system are irreconcilably in conflict; GM pp. 118-28, 147ff. ‘The essence of politics is struggle’ (ES, pp. 1415, 1450) to attain power; political leaders must be selected through competitive struggle. They will enter parliament only if that is the way to real power; see ES, pp. 1409, 1414, 1420-1, 1450. The real leader’s task is not merely to compromise interests as if politics were like a market place, but to take a stand on issues that transcend material interests; see Beetham, pp. 222-6, 144-7. A person is more likely to care about such issues, and be willing to sacrifice office to conviction, if he is financially independent – he must live ‘for’, not ‘off’ politics; see ES, pp. 1427, 1448, and GM pp. 84-5. See Max Weber on Capitalism Return to Politics, Philosophy and Medieval Studies How to cite Max Weber, Papers Max Weber Free Essays This paper intends to highlight the facts concerning Max Weber. This includes general history, his education, major contributions, theories, as well as, the critical contributions he made. General History Max Weber was born in Erfurt, South Germany in 21 April 1864 (Morrison, 1995). We will write a custom essay sample on Max Weber or any similar topic only for you Order Now He passed away in June 1920 (Morrison, 1995). He brilliantly finished school at an early age and then went on to teach at several universities in Germany while delivering thought-provoking lectures and writing what are to be considered his major contributions to politics, sociology, economics etc (Morrison, 1995). Education Max Weber was an outstanding student (Morrison, 1995). Furthermore, he holds a bachelor’s degree in law and a doctorate in political economy which he both earned in Berlin (Morrison, 1995). Moreover, he also attended University of Heidelberg, as well as, University of Gottingen (Morrison, 1995). Major Contributions Max Weber’s contribution to the world of economy, law public administration, philosophy, political economy, politics, as well as, sociology include the following: 1) Major research projects on capitalism, methodology, and religion like the â€Å"The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism† specifically â€Å"The Religions of the East† wherein he looked into the relationship between religious and philosophical ideas in the east and the development, (as well as, inadequacy of it) of capitalism in that geographical area; 2) â€Å"Economy and Society† which is taken to be Max Weber’s most ambitious theoretical and historical work; 3) theory of bureaucracy; 4) types of legitimate domination; 5) concept of rationality; 6) etc (Morrison, 1995). Theories Max Weber’s theories are categorized under â€Å"bureaucracy† (Morrison, 1995). For him, this concerns the continuous, rational, professionalized, as well as, rule-governed form of administration (Morrison, 1995). In addition to that, Weber believes that bureaucracy is a   form of an administration that do not entail any kind of personal, irrational, or emotional feelings (Morrison, 1995). Furthermore, he associated the phenomenon of bureaucratic development or bureaucratization with rationalization, as well as, modernization (Morrison, 1995). Moreover, he also claimed that bureaucratic development is related to the division of labor or specialization, in terms of administration and not economic production (Morrison, 1995). Also, he said that bureaucracy is excellent since it is characterized by efficiency, impartiality, as well as, efficiency but from it also arise dangers including its incompatibility with democracy, as well as, alienation of the public from the processes of bureaucracy (Morrison, 1995). Critical Contributions One of the most critical contributions of Max Weber is known as the legitimate types of authority (Morrison, 1995). First of all, he claims that legitimate authority and legitimate domination is one and the same (Morrison, 1995). Second, he states that domination is not similar with power (Morrison, 1995). Explaining further, â€Å"power according to Max Weber is the capacity of an individual to do something even if resistance comes into play while domination is a right of the ruler to command and to be obeyed (Morrison, 1995). Third, according to him the three types of legitimate domination or authority are the following: 1) rational-legal, which is based on legal precepts and rules and that obedience is something that is impersonally owed and obligatory wherein an order is the source of authority; 2) traditional, which is established on what norms are acceptable and practiced, including rites and rituals which are carried out wherein the family is the source of authority; and 3) charismatic, which is instituted in the qualities of the leader considered to be extraordinary especially when it comes to the capability of the leader to inspire his followers eventually making his followers obey him (Morrison, 1995). References Morrison, K. (1995). Marx, Durkheim, Weber: Formations of Modern Social Thought. London: Sage Productions.       How to cite Max Weber, Essay examples

Case Study of Gambotto v WCP Ltd-Free-Samples-Myassignementhelp.com

Question: Recognise the laws relating to companies in Australia and Examine the duties, rights and responsibilities of Company officers. Answer: Introduction: Gambotto v WCP Ltd was considered as the important case of corporate law in the Australian history. In this case, High Court rejected the amendment made in the constitution of the company because amendment allowed the majority shareholders of the company to compulsorily acquired or expropriate the shares hold by minority shareholders of the company. High Court of Australia took historical decision on 8th March 1995, and in this decision High Court empowered the minority shareholders under the Corporation Act of Australia. In this, Mr. Giancarlo Gambotto representing himself and achieved great success against the Industrial Equity Ltd (IEL) for expropriate the share hold by Mr. Gambotto in WCP as minority shareholder by altering the Articles of Association of WCP. This victory was considered as remarkable victory because it shows the interventionist approach, which was usually avoided by the Courts in corporate context. Decision of High Court in this case was also important because High Court introduced the new stringent rule for the purpose of testing the validity of such alterations made under companies AOA and MOA. Facts of the case: Litigation in this case was related to the attempt made by majority for obtaining the 100 percent stake in the WCP limited. In these majority shareholders of the wholly-owned subsidiaries of IEL holds almost 99.7% shares of the share capital of the WCP and the appellant that were Giancarlo Gambotto and Eliandri Sandri holds almost 0.094% shares of the issued share capital of the WCP. IEL wants to get the 100% control of the WCP for the purpose of obtaining taxation and administrative benefits which includes saving in income tax of almost $4 million and accounting fee savings of almost $3,000 per year. It becomes possible for IEL to purchase the appellants shares under the process of alternative compulsory acquisition, and because of this IEL insert provision in the constitution of the company which allowed any member of the company who hold 90% or more of the issued shares to acquire the shares on compulsory basis before thirtieth June 1992, all the issued shares in WCP at a price of $1.80 per share. WCP also send notice to the shareholders of the meeting which was held on 11 May 1992 for the purpose of considering the amendment to its effect. Experts valued the share at $1.365 per share, and this price was considered fair valuation by the appellant. Appellants do not desire to sell their shares and file suit against the respondent before the meeting for the purpose of preventing the resolution being passed. This meeting took place subsequently, but Court directed to the WCP that it was not possible to acquire any shares by WCP on the basis of this mechanism till the Courts decisi on in this regard. In the meeting, company approve the amendment but IEL did not vote its shares in the meeting (Mitchell, 1994). First decision: As per the judge McLelland J in the Supreme Court of New South Wales, stated that section 176 (1) of the Corporation Law give power to the company to made amendments in the constitution of the company, but the exercise of power was constrained by the equitable principles. He further stated that main aim of amendment made by WCP was to allow the majority shareholders to expropriate the shares of the minority shareholders. As per the opinion of the judge, this amendment results in unjust oppression to those minority shareholders who object this decision. Judge noted if this amendment was permissible and if it was allowed to expropriate the minority shareholders by the majority shareholders, the procedure related to compulsory acquisition stated in the corporation law under section ss 414 and 701 would be unnecessary (Austlii, 1996). Decision by NSW Court of Appeal: NSW court of appeal unanimously overturned the decision taken by McLelland Js decision, and in this appeal leading decision was taken by Meagher JA. His Honour stated that company had power to alter its constitution but this power was constrained by some equitable principles.Judge further stated that view of McLelland Js was only consider the fact that expropriation of shares was a malum in se. Corporation law stated provisions which expressly allowed the expropriation, which means expropriation was not contrary to the law. Meagher also stated that various benefits would be get by the company from the expropriation, and fact related to amount paid for shares was inadequate was not considered by the Judge. Therefore, no reason shows because of which Court should intervene.In this Priestly JA agreed with the decision take by Meagher JA, and stated that person after becoming the member of the company and he also agreed to bind by the duly passed resolutions of the company. However, reso lution related to expropriation of shares passed by amending the constitution of the company and it was considered as real sense and not the divestment against the will of the shareholders.Court of Appeal decided with the majority that as long as sufficient compensation was provided by the company, then it was possible for majority shareholders to expropriate the minoritys shares. High Court Decision: High Court overturned the decision of Court of Appeal by stating that amendment made by the company was invalid because amendment was not made for proper purpose. This decision was taken by the majority of judges that were Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane and Dawson JJ, who initiated their analysis by framing the question of fundamental importance as whether, and if yes in what situations the taking of a power by majority shareholders by amendment to the articles to acquire compulsorily the shares of the minority shareholders will be held invalid on the basis that it is oppressive. For answering this question, judges considered the judgment taken by Lindley MR in Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa Ltd [1900] 1 Ch 656 at 671. In this case, Lindley MR stated that power of the shareholders to amend the constitution of the company by passing special resolution must be exercised not only as per the procedure of the law but also in the benefit of the company as a whole. By following the judgment taken by Peter in American Delicacy Co Ltd v Heath, majority of the judges of High Court in this case rejected the notion that test laid down by Lindley MR in Allen as bona fide for the benefit of the company as a whole was inappropriate while considering the rights and interest of the shareholders. Court made the difference between the two type of alterations made in the constitution. Court stated that those alterations which does not involve expropriation of shares or of valuable proprietary rights which were attached to the shares, can be made by passing regular special res olution and such resolution was not ultra vires, not beyond any purpose contemplated by the constitution nor oppressive (Ramsay Saunders, n.d.). On the other side, if alteration involves the expropriation of shares or any valuable property rights which were attached to the shares then it was not sufficient to regularly pass the SR, and on these different considerations was applied. Majority of judges in High Court stated two tests which must be conducted while making amendment to the constitution of the company which permits expropriation of shares, and these two tests were stated below: Company exercises this power for proper purpose. If company exercises its power then it will not operate oppressively in relation to the minority shareholders of the company. The first factor of the test which stated that Company must exercises this power for proper purpose means that expropriation of shares will only justified in that case in which it was reasonably proved that continued shareholding of the minority cause damage to the company and affairs of the company and expropriation of shares was necessary for the purpose of eliminating and mitigating that detriment. Majority further stated that it would not be considered as sufficient justification if expropriation of shares would advance the interest of the company or ensures any commercial advantage for the company. An expropriation of shares will only be valid if it saves the company from detriment of any harm. Majority of judges provide two examples which clarify the meaning of proper purpose such as when shareholders of the company is competing in the company, in case when it was necessary to ensure that company is complied with the regulatory provisions such as residency requirement of shareholder. The second factor of the test states that expropriation of shares must be fair and not oppressive in nature, which means it must include both procedural and substantive aspects. The process through which expropriation was conducted must be fair, and it requires the majority to disclose all the necessary information. It also includes valuation of shares by independent expert. On the other side, substantive fairness includes price to be paid for the shares. Majority stated that market value cannot be considered as sufficient indicator for the purpose of determining the fair value of the shares. It must be noted that other factors must be considered such as assets of the company, dividend, nature of the company, and expected future. In this case, fairness was not challenged by the appellant but it could not be established that expropriation of shares was conducted for proper purpose. Majority also stated burden to prove is lie on the party who intended to expropriate for the purpose of proving that power was validly exercised. Key Aspects of the Decision: This decision of High Court was considered as historic decision in context of corporation law in Australia, and following are some key aspects of this decision: Firstly, High Court defines the proper purpose narrowly and also stated the test which is known as stringent test for satisfying the proper purpose of expropriation of shares. Court also stated objective test which ensures that inquiry does not limit in relation to the subjective good faith of the majority. It can be said that Court framed the test in such way which makes it unattractive for the majority shareholders for the purpose of avoiding the protections which is stated in the statutory expropriation mechanisms. The test for proper propose stated by the High Court has no equivalent in the statutory mechanism for expropriation of shares. Secondly, majority of judges placed focus on the concept related to shares as property, with the holder which has proprietary rights in the property. Judges stated that they does not consider, in the case of amendment of the AOA by authorizing expropriation of shares. They further stated that it is sufficient justification related to expropriation of shares that expropriation must be fair and also ensure the interest of the company as legal as well as social entity. However, this approach does not justify the property nature of the shares. Thirdly, principles stated in this case were considered valid only if they were inserted by amending the constitution of the company and do not apply to the constitution from the incorporation of the company. If constitution of the company stated about the expropriation of shares from the time of incorporation of the company then such provision in the constitution is valid. Conclusion: Experts stated that this case was the most important case in the history of corporate law of Australia because this case empowers the minority shareholders of the company. In this case, High Court not only empowered the minority shareholders but also impose responsibility on the majority shareholders and management of the company to conduct expropriation of shares for proper purpose only, and not the for the benefit of majority shareholders. In this High Court protect the interest of minority shareholders. The decision taken by High Court was considered as significant victory for the minority shareholders of the company. In this High Court provide the power to the minority shareholders of the company. This decision is considered as new provision in the protection of minority shareholders of the company. References: Allen v Gold Reefs of West Africa Ltd [1900] 1 Ch 656 at 671. American Delicacy Co Ltd v Heath (1939) 61 CLR 457 at 481. Austlii, (1996). Oppression of Majority Shareholders by a Minority? Gambotto v WCP Ltd. Retrieved on 17th November 2017 from: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/SydLRev/1996/6.pdf. Corporation Act 2001- Section 414. Corporation Act 2001- Section 701. Gambotto v WCP Ltd (1995) 182 CLR 432; 127 ALR 417; 16 ACSR 1; 13 ACLC 342. Mitchell, V (1994). Gambotto and the Rights of Minority Shareholders. Retrieved on 17th November 2017 from: https://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1091context=blr. Ramsay, I. Saunders, B. What do you do with a high court decision you dont like? .legislative, judicial and academic responses to Gambotto V WCP Ltd. Retrieved on 17th November 2017 from: https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/1709610/42-WhatDoYouDoWithAHighCourtDecisionYouDontLike1.pdf.

Childhood in the Multimedia Age

Children who are born in this century are bombarded with information, images, and sound bytes coming in from different multimedia streams. Nowadays information can be retrieved and sent at the speed of light.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Childhood in the Multimedia Age specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More If parents are not aware of the enormous influence that multimedia can have on their children, then they will not do anything to monitor how children use the Internet and what they watch on TV. These parent will discover later on that technology has become the surrogate parents to their sons and daughters. It is time to re-evaluate how society has come to understand the impact of technology on children. Without a doubt the Internet and television can be an effective tool in enhancing the learning experience but it can also be considered as a Pandora’s Box that can unleash a host of problems, in the place w here children are the most vulnerable – in their homes. It has become more evident that technology is affecting the way children see the world. It can also influence their thinking process and therefore the only effective means to counteract these effects is to teach children how to deal with technology so that the TV set, the computers, and the video games are under their control and not the other way around. The Way they Learn Kirkorian, Wartella and Anderson, argued that those who were born in the latter part of the 20th century are already active media users especially pertaining to watching TV. But before the 1980s there was very little research when it comes to the impact of TV on children’s psychosocial and cognitive development. But the turning point came researchers discovered that as the child grows older he is no longer a passive viewer but able to pay greater attention to informative features such as dialogue and narrative (Kirkorian, Wartella Anderson, 20 08, p. 40). This insight into the world of TV viewing has both positive and negative implications. Since children are no longer seen as passive consumers of media messages, parents and moral leaders of society are concerned with the increasing violence and mature subject matter depicted on TV screens. If children beyond the toddler stage can perceive informative features such as dialogue and narrative what would be the impact if they cannot discriminate between fact and fiction. But Kirkorian, Wartella and Anderson’s article focused more on the positive effects of TV viewing.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The researchers asserted that, â€Å"Educational television programs, those designed around a curriculum with a specific goal to communicate academic or social skills, teach their intended lesson† (Kirkorian, Wartella Anderson, 2008, p. 45). The only word of cautions is that for producers to pay attention to age-appropriate content as this is the crucial factor when it comes to maximizing the educational benefits of TV viewing with shows like Sesame Street, Dora the Explorer, and Teletubbies, among others. In 1999 alone, it was estimated that there more than fifty percent of households with children who had access to a computer game system, and that more than fifty percent had home computers and that close to forty percent had access to the Internet (Subrahmanyam et al., 2000, p. 123). In the present these figures had risen to levels that would suggest a significant saturation of the market with computers like PCs and Apple Macintosh to Internet service that would allow kids access to a highly interactive world of cyberspace. Aside from the fact that computers and Internet has the potential to supply information and images not appropriate for minors, the number one concern with computer use is the fact that it can easily displace other activiti es. It is particularly worrying for kids because at this stage in their lives they need to play outdoors and interact with other children and adults. But if they are holed up in their rooms and are content to stare into a small screen there is legitimate cause for concern for this can have a negative impact on their development. It has been pointed out that â€Å"extended computer use may be linked to an increased risk of obesity, seizures and hand injuries† (Subrahmanyam, 2000, p.125). Yet surprisingly the effect on cognitive skills and academic performance are on the positive side. Numerous studies confirmed that after playing a particular computer game children were able to improve their spatial skills or the ability to manipulate objects or images in their minds. The same is true with iconic skills – the ability to read images. There was also a marked improvement in visual attention skills – a skill similar to a pilot keeping track of a row of several engine dials simultaneously (Subrahmanyam, 2000, p. 129). It is time to examine the social aspect of extended computer use. The Way they Behave According to the researchers there is no need to elaborate the fact that, â€Å"spending a disproportionate amount of time on any one leisure activity at the expense of others will hamper social and educational development† (Subrahmanyam, 2000, p. 132). This simply means that if a child will not give time for his or her studies and other school activities then there will be only mastery of computer games and nothing more. But aside from possible problems when it comes to school work, non-educational games that centred on violent themes can increase aggressiveness, hostility and can desensitize children to violence (Subrahmanyam, 2000, p. 132). The numerous school shootings in the United States and Europe forced many people to reconsider this view.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Childhood in the Multimedia Age specifi cally for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Aside from the physical, cognitive aspects of extended computer use, technology has evolved to such a point that computers are no longer merely education tools and gaming systems. It is now possible to develop virtual communities and relate to other people via the computer and the Internet. While there can be the problem of isolation and loneliness, an inevitable result of staring at a computer screen and interacting with a machine the second most important concern is the ability to develop virtual identities where children can use their imagination to make an alternative identity. They can imagine themselves as a knight in shining armour or a villain. In their own virtual world no one can be sure if the child can discriminate between fantasy and reality. A commentary said that â€Å"Although research on the long-term effects of media exposure on children’s emotional skill development is limited, a go od deal of evidence shows that media exposure can contribute to children’s fears and anxieties† (Wilson, 2008, p. 87). This is a significant claim considering that in the 21st century parents are busy working and spending long hours at work and has very little time to supervise and monitor the activities of their children. But there is more, there seems to be a proliferation of movies with horror-filled content such as vampire films, movies with witches as main characters, and of course the typical horror films that can now be viewed by children. Most of these films are targeted towards children (Wilson, 2008, p. 93). It was also revealed in studies â€Å"that preschoolers and elementary school children have experienced short-term fright in reaction to what they saw on TV and the movies† (Wilson, 2008, p. 93). The most interesting research with regards to this subject matter is a nationally representative survey where 62 percent of parents of 2-7 year olds remark ed that their children had, â€Å"sometimes become scared that something they saw in a movie or TV might happen to them† (Wilson, 2008, p. 93). Researchers also highlighted the fact that â€Å"Children who viewed footages of the 9/11 terrorist attacks and its aftermath experienced post-traumatic symptoms, 35 percent had difficult falling asleep or had trouble concentrating while 47 percent were worried about their safety or the safety of their loved one† (Wilson, 2008, p. 94). If this is true with other children then there is a need to take a closer look at this phenomenon. Even with increasing evidence that frightening shows, and emotionally distressing programming are causing a negative impact in the lives of children there is still a need for more research to examine long term effects of these type of media content. Meanwhile kids require more supervision and the parents can teach them to develop skills that will help them understand fantasy from reality.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The phenomenal growth of video games could never have been predicted based on the first generation equipment and technology used a few decades ago. In the present day, its success is very much the result of leaps and bound in gaming concepts and technological advancements. It could also be argued that part of its success draws from the winning formula of adding violence into the story and actual mechanics of the virtual game. Violence in video games is a major concern among parents, school officials and even politicians who are pressured by parents and teachers to do something about the problem. What exactly is the effect of video games -having violent content – in the behaviour of young people between the ages of 12 and 18? The age bracket is interesting and yet very apt in the discussion due to the still vivid recollection of school shootings that had shaken American education to its core. The Way they Think Aside from affecting the way they learn and behave, information te chnology and multimedia resources are also affecting the way children think. There is therefore a need to educate children on how to deal with a world bombarded with images and information accessed from different multimedia streams. They belong to the high-tech era and therefore obsolete methods of raising children has no effect on them. This does not mean that traditions and culture that existed for centuries has to be thrown out of the window. However, old-age techniques has to be modified and adapted to the needs of the present. Nevertheless, it nothing short of arrogance for someone to say that he has discovered the best way to educate children. But it can be argued that there are indeed methods that can produce highly satisfactory results. This method of teaching or educating can be derived at by first clarifying some terms. Obviously the first idea that requires clarification is the meaning of the term – to educate. It must be made clear what is the exact meaning or int ended meaning before one can proceed and provide solution to a very important issue, the proper way of educating children so that they can deal with the multimedia onslaught. This means that children must be educated in a pragmatic manner, teaching them the ability to learn skills that will help them navigate the real world. In the context of this study children must be taught how to handle technology. They must understand that technology must be their slaves and not to be controlled by it. They must understand the health risks of video games and spending a great deal of time in front of computer monitor. More importantly they need to know how to deal with problems related to cyberspace. This means that instead of forcing them to memorize useless information it would serve them better if they learn the basics of computers, the ability to read with comprehension etc. On top of all these skills, children should be trained in how to think with an eye towards problem solving. They have to be taught how to discern danger especially in the virtual world where sex predators had modified their strategies to suit the times (Arnaldo, 2001, p.5). Conclusion The 21st century can be labelled as the Multimedia Age. Therefore, children that were born in this generation are faced with challenges that are unique to them. The Internet, 24/7 News channels, Cable TV, and video games are affecting the way they see the world and react to it. It is now time for parents to re-evaluate how they treat technology and how much they spend time in monitoring what their children are doing on a regular basis. It is no longer acceptable for parents to leave their kids in front of the TV and the computer without knowing the media content being delivered, shared, or streamed online. It is time to be vigilant and to take a more proactive stance in teaching children how to deal with technology. This is the time because tomorrow may be too late for many of them. References Arnaldo, C. (2001). Chil d Abuse on the Internet: Ending the Silence. UK: Berghahn Books. Kirkorian, H., Wartella, E. Anderson, D. (2008). Media and young children’s learning.  The Future of Children, 18(1): 39-55. Subramanyam, K. et al. (2000). The impact of home computer use on children’s activities and development. The Future of Children, 10(2): 123-140. Wilson, B. (2008). Media and children’s aggression, fear, and altruism. The Future  of Children, 18(1): 87-111. This essay on Childhood in the Multimedia Age was written and submitted by user Kelly F. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Beringian Standstill Hypothesis of the First Americans

Beringian Standstill Hypothesis of the First Americans The Beringian Standstill Hypothesis, also known as the Beringian Incubation Model (BIM), proposes that the people who would eventually colonize the Americas spent between ten to twenty thousand years stranded on the Bering Land Bridge (BLB), the now-submerged plain beneath the Bering Sea called Beringia. The BIM argues that during the turbulent times of the Last Glacial Maximum about 30,000 years ago, people from what is today Siberia in northeastern Asia arrived in Beringia. Because of local climate changes, they became trapped there, cut off from Siberia by glaciers in the Verkhoyansk Range in Siberia and in the Mackenzie River valley in Alaska. There they remained in the tundra environment of Beringia until retreating glaciers and rising sea levels allowedand eventually forcedtheir migration into the remainder of the Americas about 15,000 years ago. If true, the BIM explains the long-recognized, deeply puzzling discrepancy of the late dates for the colonization of the Americas (Preclovis sites such as Upward Sun River Mouth in Alaska) and the similarly stubbornly early dates of the antecedent Siberian sites (the Yana Rhinoceros Horn site in Siberia; for some of this discussion, see ORourke and Raff). The BIM also disputes the notions of three waves of migration. Up until recently, scholars explained a perceived variation in mitochondrial DNA among modern (indigenous) Americans by postulating multiple waves of migration from Siberia, or even, for a while, Europe. But, recent macro-studies of mtDNA identified a series of pan-American genome profiles, shared by modern Americans from both continents, decreasing the perception of widely varying DNA. Scholars still think that there was a post-glacial migration from northeast Asia of the ancestors of the Aleut and Inuitbut that side-issue is not addressed here, see Adachi and colleagues, Long and colleagues, and Schurr and colleagues in the bibliography. Evolution of the Beringian Standstill Hypothesis The environmental aspects of the BIM were proposed by Eric Hultà ©n in the 1930s, who argued that the now-submerged plain beneath the Bering Strait was a refuge for people, animals and plants during the coldest parts of the Last Glacial Maximum, between 28,000 and 18,000 calendar years ago (cal BP). Dated pollen studies from the floor of the Bering Sea and from adjacent lands to the east and west support Hultà ©ns hypothesis, indicating that the region was a mesic tundra habitat, similar to that of tundra in the foothills of the Alaska range today. Several tree species, including spruce, birch and alder, were present in the region, providing fuel for fires. Mitochondrial DNA is the strongest support for the BIM hypothesis. That was published in 2007 by Tamm and colleagues, who identified evidence for the genetic isolation of ancestral Native Americans from Asia. Tamm and colleagues identified a set of genetic haplogroups common to most living Native American groups (A2, B2, C1b, C1c, C1d*, C1d1, D1, and D4h3a), haplogroups that had to have arisen after their ancestors left Asia, but before they dispersed into the Americas. In a 2012 study, Auerbach reports that although there is variation among the five (admittedly a very tiny population) early Holocene male skeletons which have been recovered from North America, the individuals all have wide bodies, a trait shared by Native American communities today and which is associated with adaptations to cold climates. Auerbach argues that people from the Americas have wider bodies than other populations around the world. If true, that also supports the isolation model, as it would have been a shared trait developed in Beringea before people dispersed. Genomes and Beringia A 2015 study (Raghavan et al.) comparing genomes of modern people from all over the world found support for the Beringian Standstill Hypothesis, albeit reconfiguring the time depth. This study argues that the ancestors of all Native Americans were genetically isolated from East Asians no earlier than than 23,000 years ago. They hypothesize that a single migration into the Americas occurred between 14,000 and 16,000 years ago, following the open routes within the interior Ice Free corridors or along the Pacific coast. By the Clovis period (~12,600-14,000 years ago), isolation caused a split among the Americans into northernAthabascans and northern Amerindian groupsand southerncommunities from southern North America and Central and South America. Raghavan et al. also found what they termed a distant Old World signal related to Australo-Melanesians and East Asians in some Native American groups, ranging from a strong signal in the Suruà ­Ã‚  of Brazils Amazon forest to a much weaker signal in northern Amerindians such as Ojibwa. Raghavan et al. hypothesize that the Australo-Melanesian gene flow may have arrived from Aleutian Islanders traveling along the Pacific rim about 9,000 years ago. In an article released the same week as Raghavan et al., Skoglund et al. reported similar research and resulting genetic evidence. While their results are largely the same, they emphasized the Australo-Melanesian gene flow among South American groups, terming it evidence of Population Y, and arguing that the data support a long-standing theory concerning ancient Australo-Melanesian voyages to the New World. This model is over a decade old, but was built on cranial morphology and has not had genome support before this time. Skoglund et al. admit that DNA has not been retrieved from crania exhibiting the supposed physical affinities to Australo-Melanesians. See Was there Pre-columbian Contact Between Polynesia and America for additional discussion. Archaeological Sites Yana Rhinoceros Horn Site, Russia, 28,000 cal BP, six sites above the Arctic Circle and east of the Verkhoyansk Range. Malta, Russia, 15,000-24,000 cal BP: DNA of a child burial at this upper Paleolithic site shares genomes with modern western Eurasians and Native Americans bothFunadomari, Japan, 22,000 cal BP: Jomon culture burials share mtDNA in common with Eskimo (haplogroup D1, see Adachi)On Your Knees Cave, Alaska, 10,300 cal BP (see Perego 2009 Paisley Caves, Oregon 14,000 cal BP, coprolites containing mtDNA Monte Verde, Chile, 15,000 cal BP, first confirmed preclovis site in the Americas Kennewick  and Spirit Cave, USA, both 9,000 years cal BP (wide body form, see Auerbach) Charlie Lake Cave, British Columbia, Canada Daisy Cave, California, US Ayer Pond, Washington, US Upward Sun River Mouth, Alaska, US Sources This article is a part of the About.com guide to the Population of Americas, and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Adachi N, Shinoda K-i, Umetsu K, and Matsumura H. 2009. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Jomon skeletons from the Funadomari site, Hokkaido, and its implication for the origins of Native American. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 138(3):255-265. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20923 Auerbach BM. 2012. Skeletal variation among early Holocene North American humans: Implications for origins and diversity in the Americas. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 149(4):525-536. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22154 Hoffecker JF, Elias SA, and ORourke DH. 2014. Out of Beringia? Science 343:979-980. doi:10.1126/science.1250768 Kashani BH, Perego UA, Olivieri A, Angerhofer N, Gandini F, Carossa V, Lancioni H, Semino O, Woodward SR, Achilli A et al. 2012. Mitochondrial haplogroup C4c: A rare lineage entering America through the ice-free corridor? American Journal of Physical Anthropology 147(1):35-39. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21614 Long JC, and Ctira Bortolini M. 2011. New developments in the origins and evolution of Native American populations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 146(4):491-494. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21620 ORourke DH, and Raff JA. 2010. The Human Genetic History of the Americas: The Final Frontier. Current Biology 20(4):R202-R207. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.051 Perego UA, Achilli A, Angerhofer N, Accetturo M, Pala M, Olivieri A, Kashani BH, Ritchie KH, Scozzari R, Kong Q-P et al. 2009. Distinctive Paleo-Indian Migration Routes from Beringia Marked by Two Rare mtDNA Haplogroups. Current Biology 19:1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2008.11.058 Raff JA, Bolnick DA, Tackney J, and ORourke DH. 2011. Ancient DNA perspectives on American colonization and population history. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 146(4):503-514. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.21594 Raghavan M, Skoglund P, Graf KE, Metspalu M, Albrechtsen A, Moltke I, Rasmussen S, Reedik M, Campos PF, Balanovska E et al. 2014. Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans. 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Kings Hard work To Attain Civil Rights Research Paper

Kings Hard work To Attain Civil Rights - Research Paper Example Martin Luther King Jr. is the most important single Civil Rights Movement Activists because of his leadership qualities, activities to attain civil rights and attainments. Leadership Qualities Of Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. was an exemplary leader of the Civil Rights Movement. During his life, he exhibited five important leadership qualities including faith, honesty, strong cognitive ability, high self-confidence, willpower and social acceptability (Chumach 1). This section will include the summary of the entire research paper including the leadership qualities, the hard work and the attainments of Martin Luther King Jr. Retribution needs to be handed down by the law enforcement agents, who are described as being blandly dispassionate as they inescapable. In some instances, their energy is usually misdirected like the park ranger who denied accessibility to the ginseng plants.

Portfolio on my communication adequacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Portfolio on my communication adequacy - Essay Example Portfolio on my communication adequacy Towards the beginning of the task, we chose as a gathering that every colleague would be in charge of one piece of the presentation. My part was to incorporate the distinctive parts into one firm presentation. To comprehend why this critical incident happened and how comparable circumstances can perhaps be kept away from later on, I will utilize the media richness hypothesis (taking into account Lengel & Daft (1988). As indicated by this hypothesis, diverse structures or "mediums" of correspondence have distinctive abilities to convey and transmit data. The hypothesis contends that convoluted messages, or messages that convey a great deal of data, ought to be transmitted utilizing rich mediums, for example, video conferencing or face to face, while simpler messages can be viably be conveyed utilizing more straightforward mediums, for example, email and pamphlets. Case in point, a basic message in regards to the area of a meeting can be sufficiently conveyed utilizing an email or pamphlet, while a more unpredictable message, for example, the justification for a departmental rebuild ought to be conveyed up close and personal. The hypothesis additionally contends that none- routine messages o ught to be conveyed utilizing media-rich channels. As depicted in Table 1, my message determined an assignment due date for my fellow team members. Figure 1 demonstrates that my message was not suitably set on the media l richness model, clarifying why my colleagues did not precisely decode it.

Regeneration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Regeneration - Essay Example four major criteria which included, ‘increasing the demand for local labour’, ‘reducing local labour-market imperfections, ‘increasing mobility and awareness of job opportunities’, and ‘increasing the skills of local residents through educational or training schemes’. Correspondingly, the LDDC policies formulated by the central government can be identified to promote the gentrification process (Church, 1987). Similarly, the study of Butler and Lees (2006) asserted the prevalence of super-gentrification in ‘inner London neighbourhood of Barnsbury’, which was further in line with the gentrification noticed in New York. Notably, the Abercrombie Plan visualized â€Å"the outward movement of London’s population to locations beyond the Green Belt at the cost of a declining inner city population† (Keddie, n.d.). These examples can be viewed as evidences which suggest that London Planning Policy promotes the gentrificati on process. 5 The term ‘gentrification’ is one of the most widely debated subject matters in the domain of urban planning. It depicts the transformations in urban design with regard to changes in lifestyle values or economic situations of any particular urban region. The process primarily depicts the idea of providing an increasing share of urban area for wealthier people in order to ensure maximum development of a particular area (Syrett & Sepulved, 2010; (Roberts & Sykes, 2000). This essay will answer the question, as to whether planning policy in London aims to promote or prevent gentrification Gentrification in London has resulted in the emergence of widespread challenges. Gentrification in London is argued to have several negative impacts on the lives of urban population. Notably, gentrification is criticised on several grounds. For example, it has been claimed that gentrification results in ‘loss of affordable housing’, ‘under-occupancy and population loss to gentrified areas’, ‘displacement through rent/price

Features of Robot Design

Features of Robot Design ROBOT DESIGN Section 1 Requirements 1.1 Introduction Robot is a kind of automatic machine, which has particularly a series of similar competences as human-being, such as sensing capability, planning capability, moving capability and so on. The word ‘Robot was referred by Czech writer Karel ÄŒapek in his play R.U.R (Rossums Universal Robots), which was published in 1920. [1] Moreover, the word robotics, which describes this kind of field of study, was referred accidentally by the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov. In his science fiction, all the robots must obey the Three Laws of Robotics (a set of three principles). The laws are stated as follows: 1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. 2. A robot must obey any orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. 3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law. With the developing of science and technology of modern society, robot is moving toward the trend of the development of intelligent. The one we will design is called Autonomous Mobile Robot which is a kind of mobile robot. It has varieties of sensors and controllers on itself. In addition, it is a robot that can independently complete some tasks without external information input and control during operations. The target for autonomous mobile robot is to, in the absence of external intervention and without making any provisions on the circumstance and changing conditions in carrying out the process, sense around the local circumstance information continuously and make a variety of decision-making independently and finally move purposeful and the complete the tasks. Accordingly, navigation technology is the core of autonomous mobile robot. 1.2 Lifecycles The diagram of lifecycles for this project is given below. It shows from the beginning of the project to the end. The system project management is an extremely vital part in every project, though it is always ignored in many teams. We need make a point of doing project management before do everything. We could discuss in a group to think out all of the possibilities which may happen in the project. ‘Many torpedoes are better than a single bullet. [7] Therefore, a group discuss together may motivate more and more inspiration rather than each single thinks it alone. A typical system feature should have simple function but complex design. It need also make a series of requirements after discussing by group, because it provides some different point of views. Possibly, there will be some quarrels during the discussion, hence, we need to respect to everyone and every point of view. In addition, a straight discipline will be built throughout the project. Every engineer should behave in honest and ethically responsibility. Otherwise, they will not be treated as a professional engineer in their fie ld. Nearly half of team, who is failed in the project, is due to a bad project management. However, the majority of teams may give incomplete requirements in the project; therefore, the result for them is also fail. To sum up, building a high-quality project management and system engineering will decrease project failure probability. 1.3 Quality Plan The quality plan displays the required product qualities and how these are measured and defines the most important quality attributes. The product quality is defined in High-level which emphasize the capabilities of developers for this project. Therefore, we have to consider if the project objectives are specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-limited. The quality plan structure is showed in table 2. Process Description Build all of the motors, microcontrollers, sensors and other components on the housing. Then connect all components to the power supply. In addition, build the software code into microcontrollers. Finally, before the formal race, we need to test the robot and improve on the ability such as speed, stable and so on. Quality Goals To drive as fast as possible and also ensure the egg will not get out of the car. Table 2. Quality Plan Structure 1.4 Requirements specification There are a series of requirements going to be given in the paper. It can be grouped in terms of Mandatory, Preference and Operational. Three specific tables of these requirements are given as follows:  ·Mandatory Requirements Motor To make the wheels rotate. Designer need two motor corresponding with two rear wheels. Sensor To provide the robot drive on the right route. It uses A/D conversion to send the signal into singlechip. DC Converter To step-down the voltages from the power supply. The work voltage for singlechip is around 5V, but the power supply given is much higher than it. Hence, designer needs to reduce the voltage. Wheels To make the robot running. Designer need two rear wheels which measure the speed of rotating and one base wheel which makes the robot balance. It Microcontroller To integrate all inputs, outputs and memory etc. into one chip. Housing To put all components on. It is a base for the robot car. Power Supply To provide voltage so that works successfully. Wires To connect all components from one hole to another. Spoon To carry an egg whilst undertaking its journey. Black line To give the robot a track to race. The black line is 5 meter long. It can be designed any shape of routes.  ·Preference Requirements Aesthetic Appearance To prettify the robot from inside to outside. It will be done after dealing with all Hardware and Software components, including adding several Led lights or a sound box. Also, orderly wires connected on the breadboard will be considerate. All of the opinion above would make consumer happy. Battery To give a wireless robot car. Using a pack of battery instead of wired power supply can make a ‘real robot. However, it will increase the weight of robot itself.  ·Operational Requirement Personnel To distribute each part of project to each of six team member specially. In the project, there are different tasks such as programming design, hardware design, mechanical construction etc. After discussion by group, we can filter out the best parts of each section. Therefore, the project can be distributed to each team member who did the best in his field. In addition, there should be a team leader, for supervising and coordinating every part in this project. Test Equipment To test the robot after designing and assembling work. Designer can use different types of raceways to test the ability of the robot such as the maximum speed, minimum and maximum radius of turning circle etc. Facilities To fix the robot with exact tools. Designer needs some basic tools to assemble the components on the housing. Technical Data To give some specific details. Designer may search online to get some technical data, which can prove our design point. Computer Software To design the programming code. Using Microchip MPLAB(if designer use PIC microchip) or other similar software to build the programming code. Cost To control the budget. As we know, designer should give a budget before working. In this project, the budget is 40 pounds, while we can exceed the budget by paying own. However, it is not a good solution. Therefore, the budget should be controlled strictly. Section 2 Design 2.1 Design Outline We divide the design outline into two parts. One is Hardware, and the other is Software. Both of them are extremely vital in this project. We will use EE2A laboratory component to guide us design the project throughout. [8] All of the specific details for each component will be given in each part. A table for design outline is as follows: HARDWIRE Motor Housing Sensor Microcontroller Power Supply SOFTWARE MPLAB IDE 2.1.1 Hardware 2.1.1.1 Servo Control The key of Servo Control is motor. In this paper we will give two kinds of motors—Servo motor and Stepper motor.  ·Servo Motor: It is one kind of indirect subsidy motor speed changing device which can control the mechanical components of the engine running. It can control the speed, displacement accuracy. In addition, it makes voltage signal into torque and rotational speed to drive the controller. The servo motor is divided into DC servo motor and AC servo motor. Servo motor mainly relies on impulse to locate. Also, when servo motor receives a pulse, then it will rotate an angle which is corresponding to one pulse. Thus, it may achieve a displacement. Because of the servo motor has sent a pulse function itself, hence, each servo motor will sent the corresponding numbers of pulse when it rotates an angle. Moreover, it is connected to the pulse which is received by the servo motor, or called ‘Closed-loop. Furthermore, the system will know how many pulses have been sent and how many pulses have been received simultaneously. Accordingly, we can control the motor rotation accurately, in order to achieve precise positioning which can reach 0.001mm. In DC servo motor, it is divided into brush and brushless motors. The characteristics of brush motor and brushless motor are as follows: Brush: Low cost, simple structure, large starting torque, speed range is wide, easy control. Do need to maintain (but easy maintenance). Brushless: Small size, light weight, fast response, high speed, small inertia, smooth rotation, stable torque. Complicated control, easy to implement intelligence. High efficiency, low operating temperature, small electromagnetic radiation. Motor maintenance-free.  ·Stepper Motor: Stepper motor is an open-loop control element which translates electrical impulse signals into angular displacement or linear displacement. Under the non-overload condition, motor speed and stop location only depend on pulse frequency and pulse number, regardless of the load change. That is, to send an electrical pulse signal, then turn one motor step angle. The existence of this kind of linear relationship, coupled with only a periodic error of stepper motors without the accumulated error, makes simple to control the stepper motor in terms of speed, position and other control areas. The characteristics of stepper motor are given as follows:  · Stepper motors are constant power devices When there is a motor speed increasing, then the torque decreases The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and expanding the driving voltage. Stepper motor has more vibration than any other motors. The vibration becomes awful at some speeds and may affect the motor to lose torque. The effect can be reduced by increasing velocity quickly through the problem speeds range, actually damping the system, or using a half-stepping motor. Motors with many phases also display smoother operation than those with fewer phases. The technical requirements of the servo control system 1. System Accuracy The accuracy refers to the reappearance of the input signal corresponding with the output of the precision required, which performs in the form of errors. It can be summarized as dynamic error, steady-state errors and static errors, which are composed of three aspects. 2. Stability The stability of the system means that when acting on the system after the disappearance of the interference, the system can be restored to its original steady-state capacity; or when there is a new input to the system command, the system will reach a new stable operation of state capacity. 3. Response The response refers to the output follow the input commands changing in reaction speed, which determines the efficiency of the system. The Response speed corresponds with a number of factors, such as the computers speed, movement system damping and quality etc. 4. Operating Frequency The operating frequency usually refers to the system which allows the input signal frequency range. When the operating frequency signal is input, the system will work according to the technical requirements, while the other frequency signal is input, the system will not work properly. The classifying of servo control system There are three kinds of common classifying as follows: 1. According to the different characteristics of parameters. 2. According to the types of the driving components. 3. According to the control theory. The Structure of servo control system Servo control system typically includes in five partscontroller, controlled object, implementation part, testing part and comparison part. 1. Controller Controller is usually a computer or a PID control circuit. The most important task is to compare the warpage output signal and deal with the transform processing, in order to control the implemental components act under the requirements. 2. controlled object The object is controlled including displacement, velocity, acceleration, force and torque. 3. implementation part The function of the implementation part is in term of control signals, according to the requirements of the various forms energy of the input transform into mechanical energy, in order to drive the controlled object. 4. testing part Testing part is a device which is able to measure the output and convert into more areas of the dimension that needed to. Typically, it includes sensors and conversion circuits. 5. comparison part Comparison part is to compare between the input command signals and the feedback signals of system, in order to attain the deviation between the output and input signal, which is usually achieved by a specific circuit or computers. Accordingly, we design this project with using stepper motor. Considering with the difficult in doing the program code, we have to give up using DC servo motor. Moreover, DC servo motor may create some pulses when it works; we have to make each program separately. Furthermore, the advantage for using stepper motor is that we have already programmed the code. Hence, we could use it with some modification easily. 2.1.1.2 Housing In this project, housing is as to the robot, just like trunk as to human-being. The stability and adaptability is the key of the project. Therefore, we prefer buy a readymade housing or the car online. There are 3 advantages for using this method. Firstly, we do not need to deal with the mechanical construction anymore. All of the basic components have already been built on the housing model. It can save an amount of time to do other work; secondly, the housing model is reliable, for the seller has sold so many models already, particularly to the competitors for the race; thirdly, the cost is lower than we do it ourselves. It can control the budget very well. To sum up, we choose this way to get the housing. In addition, the specific size of each component should be given on the prospectus. Therefore, after choosing kinds of different type of housing, we pick up an advanced housing with wheels. The size of wheels could affect the speed and the angle when it is driving. Under the same condition, using big wheels can go fast in the straight line. However, when there is a curve at the end of straight line, it is harder to turn the right direction immediately than small size wheels, because of its big radius of turning circle. The material of wheels could also affect the speed and angle when it is driving. Using plastic rear wheel may provide a high speed because of less friction. However, without more friction, it may get trouble at turning point with high angular velocity. In our case, to make sure the robot go through the black line track is the most important task. Therefore, rubber wheels should be in favour. Hence, to make wheels rotate flexible, we choose a stainless steel base wheel with 3mm inter radius, 10mm outer radius, 4mm thickness. Moreover, two rear wheels were designed with 20mm radius to make sure it has still some space under the housing to build our sensors on. According, the manufactory constructed the housing for these details we need. Finally, we fix two O-type rubber rings on the wheels. In the front of the housing, we still need to deal with some specific works. Firstly, we need two stepper motors discussed before, the point is, how to fix them on the housing steady. Right, we need two clips to fix them on the housing. Then use one screw and one nut for each side to fix the motor steady. Secondly, to make the housing tidy, we need to add a steel plate. It can not only steady the housing, but also provide another new flat to fix chips on so that do the connection work later easier. Furthermore, we have another goal in this project. It is called ‘egg race. It means we must build a spoon provided to carry an egg throughout the race. Hence, we have to consider how to ensure the egg will not be dropped off. Consequently, we design it that put the spoon on the cover of that added steel plate. It is a good place to lay the egg on, for it is not too high. In addition, we could add several wires around the spoon to double ensure it successfully. 2.1.1.3 Sensors Image Sensor An image sensor is a device which converts an optical image to an electric signal. It is used regularly in digital cameras and other imaging devices. Normally, an image sensor is a charge-coupled device (CCD) or a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) active-pixel sensor. Most digital still cameras use either a CCD image sensor or a CMOS sensor. Both types of sensor achieve the same task of capturing light and converting it into electrical signals. [2] CMOS A CMOS chip is a type of active pixel sensor which is made by using the CMOS semiconductor method. Extra circuitry adjacent to each image sensor converts the light energy to a voltage. Moreover circuitry on the chip might be included to convert the voltage to digital data. It is a sensor which has high system integration. That is to say, a CMOS chip can integrate all of functions needed by image sensor into a system-on-chip so that to achieve the goal of reducing the cost of the production. CCD A CCD is an analog device. When light hits the chip, it is held like a small electrical charge in each photoelectric sensor. The charges are converted to voltage one pixel every time when they are read from the chip. Moreover, the circuitry in the camera converts the voltage into digital data too. A CCD has a series of advantages as follows:  · High Resolution  · Low Noise  · High Dynamic Range  · Linearity  · High Quantum Efficiency  · Large Field of View  · Broad Spectral Response  · Low Image Distortion  · Small Size, Light Weight  · Low Consume Power, Without Strong Magnetic Fields Effect  · High Charge Transmission Photoelectric sensor A photoelectric sensor is a device used to detect the displacement, absence, or presence of an object by using an infrared transmitter and a photoelectric receiver. They are used broadly in industrial manufacturing. There are three different functional types: opposed, retro reflective, and proximity-sensing. A self-contained photoelectric sensor contains the optics, along with the electronics. It requires only a power source. The sensor performs its own modulation, demodulation, amplification, and output switching. Some self-contained sensors provide such options as built-in control timers or counters. Because of hi-tech progress, self-contained photoelectric sensors have become more and more small. In addition, fibre optic is passive mechanical sensing components. They may be used with self-contained sensors. They have no electrical circuitry and no moving parts, and can safely pipe light into and out of antagonistic environments.[3] After discussing both image sensor and photoelectric sensor, we decide to use photoelectric sensor during the project. From the comparison of advantages and disadvantages, we can easily find that image sensor (usually use CCD method) is a complicated and advanced technology. It is based on photoelectric infrared transmitter and receiver, but use analogue signal to digital signal. It could be used in some complex task such as 3-D race track. In our project, we only challenge to do up to 5 meters race track. Hence, it is not so much useful to get such an exact detection. Moreover, one of the advantages of photoelectric sensor is high response. It is faster than using image sensor to detect the unknown track. Accordingly, we prefer use photoelectric infrared sensor during the project. As we know, the point of photoelectric infrared sensor is infrared. We have to confirm two beside sensors do not disturb each other work. Hence, to get an appropriate distance between two sensors is the problem in this part. From reading several example projects before, we find a majority of them prefer put all the sensors into one straight line where elicits our attention. It does not matter to put them in front or back of the robot. It is similar to the X-axis. We can define each sensor a coordinate. We prefer use seven infrared sensors (1cm space between two sensors), so we can define all of these sensors into [-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3], which are the y-coordinate. Connect a LED light to the receiver of each sensor. Thus, we can know which sensor is working and which one is not. The specific diagram of sensors are showed in 1. For example, the robot starts at the centre of black line, so the LEDs should send us a data with [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0] (when sensor detects black line, the LED will light. Because the different reflectivity of black and white line). Then it will go along the track until meet a turning point. The receiver might be received a data with [0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0]. Thus, from the defin ition of setting before, we can identify the robot has departed from the centre of the black line to left. Therefore, the robot should turn left. There will be some possible troubles during debugging the robot car. The sensors are not reliable after using for a long time. Therefore, the fixed LEDs will solve this problem definitely. When they work, the LEDs should be lighted. 2.1.1.4 Microcontroller A Microcontroller is a small computer based on a single IC (integrated circuit) which is consisting of a relative simple central processor unit combined with specific functions such as a crystal oscillator, timers, and watchdog timer etc. [4] From the comparison with kinds of microcontroller, we choose MC33886 chip which is a member of the low-cost, high-performance HCS08 Family of 8-bit microcontroller units (MCUs). It is a monolithic H-Bridge ideal for fractional horsepower DC-motor and bi-directional thrust solenoid control. The 33886 chip is able to control continuous inductive DC load currents up to 5.0 A. Output loads can be pulse width modulated (PWM-ed)at frequencies up to 10 kHz.[5] The 33886 chip is parametrically detailed over a temperature range of -40 °C ≠¤ TA ≠¤ 125 °C, 5.0 V ≠¤ V+ ≠¤ 28 V. The IC can also be operated up to 40 V with derating of the specifications. The IC is available in a surface mount power package with uncovered pad for heat sinking. The features of MC33886 chip is showed below: [6] Features:  · Similar to the MC33186DH1 with Enhanced Features  · 5.0 V to 40 V Continuous Operation  · 120 mÃŽ © RDS(ON) H-Bridge MOSFETs  · TTL /CMOS Compatible Inputs  · PWM Frequencies up to 10 kHz  · Active Current Limiting via Internal Constant OFF-Time PWM (with Temperature-Dependent Threshold Reduction)  · Output Short Circuit Protection  · Under voltage Shutdown  · Fault Status Reporting  · Pb-Free Packaging Designated by Suffix Code VW In addition, the simplified application diagram and internal block diagram for MC33886 chip is given as follows: The 33886 chip has 20 pins. The diagram and specific Pin Layout function description will be given in 4 and table 1 as follow: Pin Layout Pin Layout Name Formal Name Description 1 AGND Analog Ground Low-current analog signal ground. 2 FS Fault Status for H-Bridge Open drain active Low Fault Status output requiring a pull-up resistor to 5.0 V. 3 IN1 Logic Input Control 1 True logic input control of OUT1 4, 5, 16 V+ Positive Power Supply Positive supply connections. 6, 7 OUT1 H-Bridge Output1 Output 1 of H-Bridge. 8, 20 DNC Do Not Connect Either do not connect or connect these pins to ground in the application. They are test mode pins used in manufacturing only. 9, 10, 11, 12 PGND Power Ground Device high-current power ground. 13 D2 Disable 2 Active Low input used to simultaneously tri-state disable both H-Bridge outputs. When D2 is logic Low, both outputs are tri-stated. 14, 15 OUT2 H-Bridge Output 2 Output 2 of H-Bridge. 17 CCP Charge Pump Capacitor External reservoir capacitor connection for internal charge pump capacitor. 18 D1 Disable 1 Active High input used to simultaneously tri-state disable both H-Bridge outputs. When D1 is logic High, both outputs are tri-stated. 19 IN2 Logic Input Control 2 True logic input control of OUT2 Table 1. Pin Layout Function Definition Some details for using the MC33886 chip should be noticed that how to use several chips together in this project. The method is using a number of MC33886 chips together in parallel. For there is no need to drive backward, hence, we could use half H-bridge and also make two half H-bridge in parallel. The consequence for this method is to enhance the driving ability of the chips. It is a common variation from full H-bridge that uses two transistors on one side of the load. Moreover, use one of the half H-bridge to drive the motor and the other one to provide power for the sensors. 2.1.1.5 Power Supply Power supply is one of the most important components and the fundament for all components working. A regulated DC power supply provides 0~15 V voltage. There are two different way to build the power supply in this project. One is using two wires to connect 0 and +15V to the DC-DC converter; the other one is building a battery on the robot itself. Both of them have advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, we have to analyze both of them first.  · Wired Power supply The advantages for the wired power supply are reliable, stable, durable and savable. The power supply is a regulated DC power supply. The only thing we need to do is using wires to connect both 0 and +15V to the DC-DC converter. Because the working voltage for whatever microcontroller, sensors and stepping motors is 5 volts, we need a DC-DC converter to convert voltage from 15V to 5V. Moreover, we do not need to consider the duration of the power supply. It will still work normally even if works after several hours. Furthermore, using wired power supply is an excellent method to consider the cost during the project, for the power supply is a preference requirement in this project. Hence, we do not need to cost a lot on it. The disadvantage for the wired power supply is obviously wired. We have to let one person hold wires when it is driving. This is a consideration from personnel aspect. It is a waste of energy to the team.  · Wireless Power Supply The advantage for the wireless power supply is that we can design a really autonomous robot. We do not need to contribute one person to look after it. However, we may meet a series of problems when using battery. Firstly, it may increase the weight of whole robot. As we know, it is hard to turn left or right when you drive a high weight car. It is similar to an autonomous robot. Secondly, the duration is limited. For we have to test the robot before the race competition, the problem is how long does this pack of battery provide the power. The answer is not too long. Therefore, if we choose to use battery as the power supply, we have to solve how to charge the battery first. To sum up, it is not a good method to use battery in this project. Basically, we consider from the duration and the cost these two aspects. Accordingly, the final scheme we designed is to use wired power supply. 2.1.2 Software Because we do not have MC33886 chip yet, we have to use PIC 16F648A chip to simulate this design. It should be kinds of similar to each other, but particularly in using different software. With the purpose of writing program data into a PIC chip, a software programmer is required. In the design, a USB controlled PICkit2 may be used. We will give following steps to guild us through the generation of the programme. Moreover, make sure retain a simple ‘debug programme in order to exercise any hardware, such as a simple flashing LED. There are a series steps to help us how to program the device. We pick them up from the laboratory notes.[8] 1. Connect the PICkit2 Microcontroller Programmer to the PC by using the USB cable. Socket the 6-pin header on the bread board or frankly on to the hardware (for in-circuit programming). 2. Start MPLAB IDE from the shortcut icon on the desktop, or the Start menu. In addition, check the version number is MPLAB IDE v7.62 or above. 3. From the MPLAB IDE menu bar, select Project > Project Wizard†¦ 4. It opens up the Project Wizard. Click Next to continue. 5. Wizard Step One: The laboratory project target device is the PIC 16F648A (Which we will give an example in the next section). In the wizard, select the ‘PIC 16F648A from the drop-down box and click next. 6. Wizard Step Two: select the use of the ‘CSSC Compiler for PIC12/14/16/18 for the project language tool suite from the Active Tool suite drop-down box. We should browse so as to discover the location of the files on the hard disk. Then Click Next and continue. 7. Wizard Step Three: Name the project and select a directory. Then Click Next. 8. Wizard Step Four: There is possible that we want to add a file which has been written previously. The file tree view box on the left should already be prolonged to the project directory. Select the file which we want to add and click the ‘Add >> button to add it to the project. Since the project directory is the same as the file directory, there is no need to check the box to copy it. Then Click Next when done. 9. Wizard Summary: Click the Finish button. A new page and project are created in the MPLAB IDE. The new page includes information on the selected PIC MCU device, the active programmer and/or debugger, open windows and their location, and other IDE configuration settings. The page is also related with a ‘project, which includes the files which are needed to build an application (source code, include files, linker scripts and so on.) along with associated language (co